Choline 

Choline is a vitamin-like nutrient that functions as a building block of cell membranes, plays a role in fat metabolism, functions as a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, as well as plays a role in homocysteine metabolism, facilitating the normal functioning of the liver. 

Estimate of adequate intake 

The human body has the ability to produce part of the choline it requires, mainly in the liver. However, studies have found that an insufficient intake of choline from diet causes damage to the liver and muscles, which is repaired when choline intake is increased. It is therefore classified as an essential nutrient – a nutrient which humans must acquire from their diet.¹ 

Choline, which includes forms such as acetylcholine and lecithin, was added to the list of essential nutrients in the 2024 Finnish nutritional recommendations, although no recommended daily intake was given. In the nutritional recommendations, an estimate of adequate intake (AI) was specified. AI is used when there is insufficient scientific evidence for formulating a recommended intake. For adults, the AI is 400 mg per day. The average requirement is estimated to be 320 mg per day.² 

The estimate for adequate choline intake in the Finnish nutritional recommendations is based on the Nordic recommendation, which in turn is based on the scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies.^{3, 4} According to the panel, there is not yet sufficient evidence for the essentialness of choline, but they suggest an AI of 400 mg per day. This is based on the average observed choline intake in healthy populations in the European Union. The AI also factors in the amount of choline that is enough to repair insufficient choline status in 70% of people studied who demonstrated impairments in organ function. 

In the United States nutritional recommendations, the AI for choline is based on one study conducted in 1991¹, in which two different intakes were compared in people following an omnivorous diet: 50 mg per day and 500 mg per day. On these grounds, the AI was set at 550 mg for men and 425 mg for women. One of the weaknesses of this study is that only two doses were studied instead of choline intake as a continuum. Determining an AI based on one study that looked at two doses is dubious: 

“This estimate for an AI is uncertain because it is based on a single published study; it may need revision when other data become available.”⁵ 

In addition, it was noted that the AI for women was calculated based on the recommendation for men, even though it is possible that the female body may utilize choline more effectively. 

In the USA, the average choline intake for adults is 300 mg per day,⁶ and in Europe between 269 and 444 mg per day⁷. 

The vegan diet and choline 

One of the main health-related functions of choline is the transferring of methyl groups to homocysteine. Homocysteine is an amino acid found in every cell, whose concentration the body can normally regulate. It has been hypothesized that elevated homocysteine levels are connected to conditions such as cardiovascular disease and memory disorders. When a methyl group binds with homocysteine, it keeps homocysteine levels from rising.⁸ 

When folate and vitamin B12 intake is adequate, less choline is needed by the body, as both folate and vitamin B12 can transfer methyl groups to homocysteine instead of choline. Adequate betaine intake also means that less choline is needed, as betaine is a metabolite of choline and also capable of transferring methyl groups.⁸ 

Folate intake is usually high in vegans. Betaine intake is likely also sufficient, as plant-based products are good sources of it. Vitamin B12 intake in the vegan diet must always be ensured with a supplement. Most vegans take good care of supplementation, and therefore their intake of vitamin B12 is sufficient. 

Plant-based food products contain smaller amounts of choline than animal-based ones, but a varied plant-based diet in line with recommendations should provide enough choline. Good sources of choline include wheat, nuts, almonds, seeds, tofu and other soy products, other legumes, quinoa, whole grains, as well as vegetables of the Brassica family (Table 1). Many other foods also contain small amounts of choline. 

Symptoms of choline deficiency have not been reported in vegans or vegetarians. 

Food product	Portion size (g)	Choline content (mg)*
Breakfast
Cereal containing wheat germ	30	54
Soy yogurt**	200	48
Mandarins	100	10
Seed blend	30	20
Coffee	200	5
Lunch
Beans, cooked	100	35
Carrots	100	9
Cauliflower, broccoli or Brussel sprouts	80	32
Quinoa	100	70
Snack
Whole grain what bread	60	13
Peanut butter	30	19
Banana	100	10
Soy milk	200	48
Dinner
Tofu	80	23
Rice, brown	150	14
Peas	50	14
Spinach	50	14
Total choline		438

Table 1. An example of one day’s choline intake. The table includes only good vegan sources of choline. A day of eating should contain considerably more food. 

*Choline contents retrieved from: USDA Database of the Choline Content of Common Foods [27.8.2025]. Note that this database is limited and is missing many products typically used by Finnish vegans, such as modern plant protein products, hummus, tempeh, nutritional yeast, rye and oat bread, as well as many fruits and vegetables. 

**Assumed choline content similar to soy milk. 

If your vegan diet mostly contains plant milks other than soy milk, you should pay special attention to your choline intake. One good source of choline is sunflower lecithin, which contains 120 to 180 mg of choline per teaspoon. Certain vegan multivitamin products also contain choline. 

Choline and health 

In discussions about choline, people may sometimes refer to a study based on data collected in the 1980s on men between the ages of 42 and 60, which found that omnivores who got more choline from their diet had a smaller risk of dementia than omnivores with the lowest choline intake⁹. However, this cannot be used to draw conclusions about vegetarians’ dementia risk or other cognitive attributes during different life stages, such as childhood. Other studies on choline intake and memory disorders have found no link between the two. It is also important to note that the omnivores studied had low folate intake, which the higher choline intake may have compensated for. 

According to a study on cardiovascular health, high choline intake may increase the risk for heart disease through trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO).¹⁰ On the other hand, insufficient intake may be detrimental, especially in those whose diet is lacking in other methyl group transferring compounds. 

In one study, intake of choline, betaine and the essential amino acid methionine was associated with a smaller risk of fetal meningomyelocele.¹¹ Research also suggests that insufficient intake may increase this risk.^{11, 12} For this reason, those pregnant or planning pregnancy are recommended a slightly higher choline intake than general populations. Good sources of methionine in the vegan diet include whole grains, nuts, and seeds. 

A study investigating choline concentrations in breast milk found no differences between those following an omnivorous, lacto-ovo-vegetarian or vegan diet.¹³ The choline status of vegan infants has not been studied, but choline deficiency or symptoms suggesting choline deficiency have not been reported in the infants of vegan families. 

Conclusion 

If we take into account the small amount of research data the AI for choline is based on, the fact that most people do not meet the AI for choline, and that the vegan diet includes many factors which may decrease the amount of choline needed to stay healthy, we can say that vegans likely do not need to worry about meeting the AI for choline as long as food products containing choline are consumed daily. To be safe, it is good to consume a few portions of foods that are higher in choline every day. If you are pregnant or planning pregnancy, you should pay special attention to sources of choline, as well as good nutrition in general. 

Read more 

Vegan Health. Evidence based nutrient recommendations, Choline.